"When I looked at the wall of the small town at the foot of the mountain, a large sun was setting in the distance. The small town is Lintong. Opposite to the town, roofs of temples crowded in forests on the slope of Lishan Mountain. This was the famous resort, Huaqing Pool. Three thousand years ago Chang'an was the capital of China's second greatest dynasty. Here was the background of Xi'an Incident." This is what the 26-year old New Zealand journalist James Bertram said of Xi'an in 1936. After the Xi'an Incident, he came to Xi'an from Beiping. He made interviews for 44 days and reported the incident to the world. This made her a worldwide fame.
Xi'an in the winter of 1936 saw many heroes of the time like Zhang Xueliang, Yang Hucheng, Chiang Kai-shek, Song Meiling, Zhou Enlai, and others.
The September 18th Incident in 1931 pushed China to the verge of extinction. In 1935 Shanhaiguan fell and North China was in danger. Japan was trying to control North China by a so-called campaign of autonomous administration of five provinces.
Chiang Kai-shek's government insisted on "internal order before resistance against aggression". The homeless Northeastern Army was moved to Shaanxi and they and the local 17th Route Army were ordered to eliminate the Red Army. The Northeastern Army's commander Zhang Xueliang was blamed as a "general of non-resistance", but he still carried out Chiang Kai-shek's order.
In North Shaanxi, the miraculous Red Army after the fatiguing Long March was still combat worthy. From September to November 1935 they annihilated Zhang Xueliang's three divisions and gained a footing in North Shaanxi.
The Nanjing Government cancelled the designation of two divisions of the Northeastern Army. The cold-shouldered Zhang Xueliang lost confidence in Chiang Kai-shek. On the night of April 9, 1935 Zhang Xueliang met Zhou Enlai in Yan'an and reached a secret cease-fire agreement.
Chiang Kai-shek kept an eye on Xi'an. Rumors about Zhang Xueliang continually came from Xi'an. The ancient city attracted attention of more and more people.
It was then Edgar Snow and Helen Snow, Smedley, Bertram...came to witness the storm. Their reports revealed the incident to the world and they became participants of Chinese history.
Edgar and Helen Snow headed for Xi'an after the December 9th Movement in 1935.
Eager to know the Red Army, Snow arrived in Xi'an in June 1936 and interviewed General Yang Hucheng of the Northwestern Army and President Shao Lizi of Shaanxi Province. All signs showed it's possible for him to visit the Red Army.
In late June Snow got a chance to visit the area controlled by the Red Army as the first international journalist. Thanks to the peace between the Red Army and Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng's armies, Snow was able to stay there for several months. He interviewed communist leaders Mao Zedong, Zhu De, Zhou Enlai and others. He felt the delicate change in North Shaanxi. By late October when he returned to Xi'an, he said, he sensed the tension between General Zhang Xueliang and Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek.
In late September 1936 Helen received her husband's letter and arrived in Xi'an. But by then the Nanjing Government had been on alert to the situation in Xi'an. Helen couldn't visit North Shaanxi.
In Helen's eyes, Xi'an was a majestic ancient city that seemed to have been built to prevent an American woman with natural feet. Before long with help of communists Wang Lin, Zhang Zhaolin and Liu Ding, she got an opportunity to interview Zhang Xueliang.
This luxury compound was the political and military centre of Xi'an. General Zhang Xueliang presented his view vehemently to the American journalist.
He hoped to convey through international media his determination to fight Japanese aggressors.
Helen was the only woman foreign journalist in Xi'an. It was Zhang's tactic to choose Helen as a vehicle of his voice. Mr. An Wei knows Helen very well.
Helen knew the value of her report. Though the report was modified by Zhang Xueliang, the Bell tower Telegraph Office refused to send it. Helen decided to send it from Beiping. On October 5th she went to Beiping and sent out the report with the title "Rather Red Army than Japanese". She wrote that Zhang Xueliang's army had trouble and that it had been reduced from 250,000 to 130,000 men. She said the soldiers were homesick and became increasingly indignant towards Nanjing Government's policy of non-resistance.
Helen's report on Zhang Xueliang and Xi'an situation aroused strong repercussion. People felt a storm was brewing in the ancient city.
When Snow and Helen sorted out what they gathered in Beiping, they gave up an opportunity to another journalist Agnes Smedley. In 1929 Smedley went to Shanghai as a correspondent of Frankfurter Zeitung. In 1936 her friends Soong Ching Ling and Lu Xun proposed that she went to Xi'an for a chance to see the Red Army. In September at invitation of Liu Ding, she went to Xi'an. She lodged in Quaqing Pool Hotel. She said that the hotel was tranquil, free from the noises as in Shanghai. At the end of November she and other guests had to leave the hotel, making room for Chiang Kai-shek.
Smedley moved to Xijing Hotel. She didn't like this ugly place, which however was the modernist building in the city of Xi'an at that time.
On December 4th Chiang Kai-shek came. Various rumours made him uneasy. He came to supervise war against the communist party. 300,000 troops were gathering at Tongguan and fifty fighters and bombers landed on Xi'an airport. He wanted to wipe out communists in three months.
Chiang Kai-shek's retinue and high officials of Kuomingtang like Cheng Cheng, Wei Lihuang, Jiang Dingwen and Zhu Shaoliang dwelt in Xijing Hotel. The rumour said they came to replace Zhang Xueliang. Spies ran amuck. Communists and procommunists were on a blacklist. Even Zhang Xueliang's secretary Miao Jianqiu was on the wanted list and had to leave Xi'an.
On December 9th, 1936, students of Xi'an marched to mark the anniversary of Beiping students' December 9th Movement. They called all parties to stop civil war and resist Japanese aggressors. At 3 o'clock in the afternoon Smedley joined the marchers. Some pictures of the march might have been shot by Smedley. Near Baqiao Zhang Xueliang stopped the students, promising to answer the people with deeds in a week.
None realised that Xi'an was like a powder keg that had been ignited. Zhang Xueliang honoured his promise three days later.
On the early morning of December 12th, Smedley had passed a sleepless night hearing fierce gunshots.
Later Smedley recalled, "I paced up and down in my room. I heard hoarse shouts and emotional cries from the corridor. My heart seemed to stop beating. I heard glass being kicked and break on the ground, people rushing here and there, shouts and curses everywhere..."
She didn't know it was a well-prepared mutiny. High officials in Xijing Hotel became prisoners. Xi'an Airport, the railway station and post offices were controlled by soldiers. The most intense fight took place at Lintong. Most of Chiang Kai-shek's guards were arrested. Chiang in his pyjamas fled to Lishan. At dawn he was found by soldiers.
Smedley was excited. A young officer gave her a copy of Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng's telegraph to the whole nation, putting forward eight proposals including reforming Nanjing Government by incorporating all parties for national salvation, termination of civil war, releasing political prisoners, lifting the ban on people's patriotic movement, safeguarding freedom of association.
Smedley anticipated what she was experiencing was bound to change China's history. For nights running she sat at her radio and sent news in English to the world.
The international journalist who was in the eye of the cyclone and bore influence on the incident was William Donald from Australia. From 1928 to 1934 he had been Zhang Xueliang's counselor. In October 1934 he became Chiang Kai-shek's personal counselor. In Xi'an Incident he helped the two parties. He was the person acceptable by both sides.
Xi'an became the focus of China and the world. People rushed to the streets, talking and holding demonstrations. Other cities were in confusion. No one was sure if Chiang Kai-shek was living or dead. Nanjing Government split regarding to a solution of the incident. Such pro-Japanese generals as He Yingqin and others assembled troops for a war.
William Donald knew Zhang Xueliang would not hurt Chiang Kai-shek. On 14th December he and Colonel Huang Renlin trusted by Song Meiling flew from Luoyang to Xi'an.
William Donald and Zhang Xueliang talked and then saw Yang Hucheng. Later they together saw Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang Kai-shek shed tears. Donald handed Song Meiling's letter.
Donald told New York Times, Reuters and other news agencies that Chiang Kai-shek's life was not in danger. That night Song Meiling wrote in her diary that she saw the light of hope.
On December 16 Donald returned to Nanjing with Chiang Kai-shek's order to stop attacking Xi'an. A cartoon on the city wall showed Northeastern Army, 17th Route Army and Red Army together faced the crisis. Red Army arrived at Guanzhong, ready for anything untoward.
On December 20 Donald and T. V. Soong flew to Xi'an again. Two days later Song Meiling came too. Before coming to Xi'an, Song Meiling had asked Donald how she should face Zhang Xueliang. Donald told her to be composed.
With intervention of Donald and others, Chiang Kai-shek agreed to see the communist leader Zhou Enlai. When many cried to kill Chiang, the central committee of the communist party had the whole situation in mind and decided to solve the incident by peaceful means. As Chiang promised to stop civil war and fight Japanese, Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng decided to set him free.
Later Song Meiling said, "Donald set the foundation, T. V. Soong built the wall, and I put the roof."
Smedley saw Chiang set free. On December 25 people were told to meet General Fu Zuoyi at the airport. But when a car arrived, the crowds saw Chiang Kai-shek and his retinue getting off. People were puzzled. The plane disappeared from the sight. Few knew that Zhang Xueliang was on the plane too.
On the following day the exhausted Chiang Kai-shek returned to Nanjing. Zhang Xueliang had not anticipated that he would lose freedom since then.
When Smedley saw Chiang Kai-shek set free, James Bertram was hurrying to Xi'an. On December 12 she learned of the incident from a tabloid and went to see Snow and Helen. Snow and Helen encouraged her to go to Xi'an as correspondent of Snow. She came with a Northeastern Army soldier.
The soldier in disguise of a merchant was none other than Miao Jianqiu. All entries to Xi'an were blocked by armies who had come to punish Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng.
Bertram found Xi'an was a city on alert. She arrived at Xi'an on December 27th. By way of Miao Jianqiu she got to know many young officers of the Northeastern Army. Most of them took part in the mutiny. On the second day she visited Huaqing Pool and learned many details of the mutiny.
Sun Mingjiu, commander of Zhang Xueliang's guards battalion, Zhang's secretaries Ying Detian and Miao Jianqiu were key figures of the mutiny. Sun Mingjiu was the man who carried Chiang Kai-shek on his back from among rocks on Lishan Mountain on December 12. Bertram found it amusing that Chiang Kai-shek's name could be interpreted as "among rocks".
As Chiang Kai-shek and Zhang Xueliang left, the incident dramatically came to a stop. It was not the conclusion yet. The whole incident lasted until February 1937 when the Central Army entered Shaanxi Province, Northeastern Army moved east, Yang Hucheng's 17th Route Army and the Red Army were reorganised. Zhang and Yang's destiny were doomed to change.
Different journalists reflected on the incident in different ways. Snow vividly described the situation after Chiang Kai-shek was set free: Some won victory, some suffered setbacks, but all duels were like those on stage -- all combating parties shouted brandishing swords but in fact none touched the other. In the end, both the winner and the loser remained dignified.
Smedley's conclusion was: Xi'an incident ended with a kind of local failure, but with a national victory. A unified China slowly and with throes came to rejuvenation.
A few months later, the Lugouqiao Incident on 7 July 1937 opened up the nation-wide resistance against Japanese aggression. Again international journalists and Chinese people spent militant times.
|
